Nonaka postulates four modes of "knowledge conversion that are created when tacit and explicit knowledge interact." Explicit knowledge can transcend a specific context (and is transferable to other times and places) and tends to be rationalizing, theoretical, and declarative. Tacit knowledge tends to be specific to a context (available in a particular time and place), practical, routine, and procedural. Explicit or codified knowledge, on the other hand, refers to knowledge that is transmittable in formal, systematic language". "Tacit knowledge is personal, context-specific, and therefore hard to formalize and communicate. The process moves from tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge and back. "The basic argument is that knowledge creation is a synthesizing process through which an organization interacts with individuals and the environment to transcend emerging contradictions that the organization faces". As a fundamental basis for the theory of organizational knowledge creation, we focus attention on the active, subjective nature of knowledge represented by such terms as commitment and belief that are deeply rooted in individuals' value systems." Nonaka considers knowledge "as a dynamic human process of justifying personal belief toward the 'truth.'.This understanding emphasizes that knowledge is essentially related to human action. They actually create new knowledge and information, from the inside out, in order to redefine both problems and solutions and, in the process, to re-create their environment." "When organizations innovate, they do not simply process information, from the outside in, in order to solve existing problems and adapt to a changing environment. Nonaka sees ongoing knowledge creation as the source of continuous innovation and continuous innovation as the source of sustained competitive advantage. The problem of managing knowledge created in the design process is described by Horst Rittel in his work on Issues Based Information Systems (IBIS), which helped spawn an area of research in computer science known as design rationale. (1972) from UC Berkeley, when West Churchman was teaching in the business school and offering seminars that included design-methods pioneers Horst Rittel and Christopher Alexander, who were on the faculty of the UCB College of Environmental Design. (It's interesting to note that Nonaka received his MBA (1968) and Ph.D. SECI stands for socialization, externalization, combination, internalizationa model of knowledge creation proposed by Ikujiro Nonaka. The SECI model comes out of research in knowledge management, which is related to organizational learning, business administration, and information systems. I was further struck by the similarity or even isomorphism of the SECI model and the analysis-synthesis bridge model described in this forum in the March + April 2008 issue. What struck me about Manhães's article was that he introduced the SECI model of knowledge creation and explicitly applied it to analyzing and improving the design process. The connection between designing and learning was brought into sharp focus for me last summer while editing an article by Maurício Manhães, who wrote, "Design and innovation are both knowledge creation processes". I acknowledge framing designing as learning (without providing further explanation) may be little more than trading one black-box process for another, but if we can find robust models of learning, they might prove useful in designing and might suggest ways to improve the design process. See, for example, a recent New York Times article, "Putting New Tools in Students' Hands".
Several designers and teachers have recognized the link between designing and learning and are bringing designing into curricula not just in college but also in high school and even elementary school. That is, the process of observing, reflecting, and making (and iterating those steps) may aid learning. We might characterize learning as a form of designing. Thus, we might characterize designing as a form of learning.Ĭuriously, the converse is also true. Yet the design process also leads to something moreto new knowledge. Typically, design thinking leads to design making, which leads to artifacts.
Designers often speak of design as a process.
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